![]() This approach is non-invasive because only phenotypic information is gathered from the families and controls. Familial aggregation can address this question by comparing whether the prevalence of a trait is higher within the family of a proband than that in the general population ( Naj et al., 2012). One of the first questions asked in human genetic analysis is whether a trait clusters in families above chance level. Behavioral Genetic Approaches Familial aggregation A glossary of genetic terminology (terms shown in bold in the text) is also available as Supplementary Material online. In order to offer readers of diverse backgrounds a preliminary understanding, this section provides an introductory overview of the behavioral and molecular genetic approaches commonly used in human genetic analyses. The relationship between phenotypes and genes can be investigated through various genetic analytical approaches. This review aims to facilitate a greater understanding of this relatively new field among music and genetics researchers, and encourage increased research effort into uncovering the genetic basis of music ability. Current challenges and possible directions for future research are also considered. Thus, it is timely to consolidate behavioral and molecular genetic findings and provide a critical overview of what is currently known about the genetic basis of various music phenotypes. Since the boom of molecular genetic research, the current state of knowledge of the genetic basis of music ability has not been reviewed. The advent of molecular genetics in the post-genomic era holds much promise for this relatively underexplored field. Moreover, the earlier behavioral genetic investigations of music ability often lacked scientific rigor or suffered from small sample sizes (see Coon and Carey, 1989 for examples). Studies on the genetic basis of music ability have been relatively scarce, compared with more extensive investigation conducted in the language domain (for recent reviews of the genetic findings on speech and language, see Newbury and Monaco, 2010 Carrion-Castillo et al., 2013 Graham and Fisher, 2013 Raskind et al., 2013 Szalontai and Csiszar, 2013). However, the diversity of music competency across individuals adds impetus to the long-standing debate of whether musicians are born or made. The general capacity for human beings to perceive, produce, and enjoy music even in the absence of formal music training suggest that music may be “hardwired” in our genetic makeup. Music is ubiquitous in all known human cultures. Through increased research efforts, a clearer picture of the genetic mechanisms underpinning music ability will hopefully emerge. Replication of these results in alternate populations and with larger samples is warranted to confirm the findings. The gene AVPR1A on chromosome 12q has also been implicated in music perception, music memory, and music listening, whereas SLC6A4 on chromosome 17q has been associated with music memory and choir participation. Some promising and converging findings have emerged, with several loci on chromosome 4 implicated in singing and music perception, and certain loci on chromosome 8q implicated in absolute pitch and music perception. This paper begins with a brief overview of behavioral and molecular genetic approaches commonly used in human genetic analyses, and then critically reviews the key findings of genetic investigations of the components of music ability. Recent advances in genetic research offer fertile ground for exploring the genetic basis of music ability. While environmental factors influencing music development and expertise have been well investigated in the psychological and music literature, the interrogation of possible genetic influences has not progressed at the same rate. Researchers generally agree that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the broader realization of music ability, with the degree of music aptitude varying, not only from individual to individual, but across various components of music ability within the same individual. Music is an integral part of the cultural heritage of all known human societies, with the capacity for music perception and production present in most people. 4Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.3Department of Medicine, Epilepsy Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia.2International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research and Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada.1Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.McPherson 1, Isabelle Peretz 2, Samuel F. ![]()
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